Perspektif Teoretis Politik Lokal Nico Harjanto 2012
Definisi dasar • • •
Teori: generalisasi yang abstrak mengenai beberapa fenomena Konsep: konstruksi mental, suatu ide yang abstrak yang menunjuk pada beberapa fenomena atau karakteristik dengan sifat yang spesifik yang dimiliki oleh fenomena itu. Generalisasi: proses melalui mana suatu observasi mengenai satu fenomena tertentu berkembang menjadi suatu observasi mengenai lebih dari satu fenomena. – Melalui konsep, generalisasi melihat hubungan kausal – Generalisasi paling sophisticated adlh teori
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Teori politik: – – – –
Tujuan dan kegiatan politik Cara-cara mencapai tujuan tsb kemungkinan dan kebutuhan yg ditimbulkan oleh situasi politik tertentu Kewajiban2 yg diakibatkan oleh tujuan2 politik tsb » (sumber: Miriam Budiardjo, 2008: 43)
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Pendekatan: “kriteria untuk menyeleksi masalah dan data yang relevan” (van Dyke 1960) mencakup standar atau tolok ukur Metode mencakup prosedur utk memperoleh dan mempergunakan data
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Sistem Politik • Unsur: proses, struktur, fungsi • Cakupan: – – – –
Kekuasaan Kepentingan Kebijakan Budaya politik
• Input (demands n supports) [conversion] output (decisions and actions) feedback input • Input: sosialisasi n rekrutmen, artikulasi, agregasi, komunikasi capacity, conversion n maintenance, n adaptation functions • Output: rule-making, rule-application, rule-adjudication
Politics: clocks or clouds? • Politics as clocks: – Mencari regularities thd fenomena politik – Fokus pada generalisasi thd regularities dgn menggunakan “covering laws” – Fokus pada kausalitas sbg explanatory concept
• Politics as clouds: – Perilaku politik bagaikan ‘awan’ – Lack of predictability – Perlu masuk lbh ke dalam fenomena politik utk dpt memahami dunia politik yg kompleks
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Lijphart’s Typology of Scientific Methods (1975, 162)
Non-Experimental Methods
Experimental Methods
Statistical Methods (N = Large)
Comparative Method (N=Small, but > 1)
Case Study Method (N=1)
• Comparative Method – Case-oriented – Focus on variation/patterns, not causality (but conjecture about causality usually results) – U of A are important culturally/contextually – Rarely achieve more than ordinal level of measurement
• Statistical Method – Variable-oriented – Focus on causal relations and theory building – U of A are not individually important, trends are – Attempt a high level of measurement, interval if possible
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– Nomothetic Research aims to achieve: • Universalism • Generalization • Testing of hypotheses
– Idiographic Research aims to achieve: • Historical precision • (deep) theoretical argumentation
Approaches •
Institutionalist: – Concern with how institutions impact individuals values and preferences – Komponen: focus on formal n informal rules, institution as dynamics, emphasis on values, disaggregated systems
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Rational Choice: – human behavior stipulates that individuals act to maximize their personal utility by making cost-benefit calculations – individuals’ actions are taken for goal-driven reasons the individual’s goal is always the maximization of individual benefit – Individuals put together political institutions to ease the way for the achievement of individual (normally material) goals
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Cultural: – all individual action is conditioned (or even determined) by the individual’s interaction with, attitudes toward, and position in the collectivity of which s/he is a part – social-being: dipengaruhi oleh social-space – individual interests are the direct results of intersubjectively shared ideas, values, and norms (are not necessarily material) – Bisa saja individually irrational, tapi collectively rational (?)
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Behavioralism: – Elements: observable phenomenon, empirical, deterministic, covering laws, objective – The behavioral revolution: a “science of politics”; insights into behavior; prediktabilitas; individuals matter – “sekalipun perilaku manusia adalah kompleks, tapi ada pola2 berulang (recurrent patterns) yang dapat diidentifikasi
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Structural: – all individual action is conditioned (or even determined) by the political structures that have been constructed in the past – the structures themselves become the main determinant of individual goals – Individual’s efforts cannot be considered “voluntarist” or even deliberate – Contoh: Marxism and other theories of “historical determinism” are inherently structuralist
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Traditionalist: – Fokus pada nilai2 dan norma, filsafat (what ought to be), applied science/skills, historis-yuridis, kualitatif
Pertanyaan • What is worth knowing? • Can we make the world (or our life) better through understanding? • How can we contribute to understanding political phenomenon?
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